It has been proven that HMWHA displays anti-inflammatory activity, whereas low molecular weight degradation products of HA can induce inflammation.36 It has been reported that LMWHA may elicit various proinflammatory responses such as activation of murine alveolar macrophages,37 or induction of irreversible phenotypic and functional maturation of human dendritic cells.38,39 Further studies have shown that small hyaluronan fragments increase the expression and protein production of several cytokines such as MMP-12, plasmogen activator inhibitor-1,40,41 macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1α, MIP-1β, monocyte chemoattractrant-1, keratinocyte chemoattractant, interleukin (IL)-8, and IL-12 by macrophages.42-44 The obvious candidate to activate this series of events in immune system cells is CD44, the main receptor for hyaluronan. Nevertheless, macrophages from CD44 null mice still respond to small HA fragments treatment, which is consistent with the fact that other receptors, such as TLRs, are also involved in HA signaling.45
Several studies have concentrated on TLRs and TLR signaling as a key player responsible for proinflammatory properties of LMWHA. Several authors have confirmed, using in vitro studies, that LMWHA is able to bind to TLR receptors and consequently initiate the signaling cascade, leading to the production of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in various types of cells.46 In immune cells from injured tissues, TLR2 and TLR4 activation by LMWHA leads to initiation of MyD88-dependent NFκB signaling cascade and pro-inflammatory cytokine gene expression.14,47 Iwata and coauthors48 have shown that LMWHA stimulates B lymphocytes via TLR4 receptor to IL-6 and TGF beta production. Induction by LMWHA TLR-related myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88)/NFκB signaling was also confirmed in breast tumor cells. Bourguignon et al49 have shown that small HA fragments stimulate CD44 association with TLR2, TLR4, and MyD88, leading to NF-κB-specific transcriptional activation and the expression of proinflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-8 in the human breast cell line. Taken together, these reports suggest that LMWHA induces inflammation via activation of TLR receptors and initiation of MyD88/NFκB signaling which leads to production of proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. In physiological conditions, the activation of immune system cells is crucial for proper wound healing. In acute wounds, small hyaluronan fragments accumulating at the site of injury activate the immune system to manage rupture in tissue integrity; however, in chronic wounds a constant excessive inflammatory response proves to be a negative phenomenon that actually prevents that wound from healing.
Unlike small HA fragments, hyaluronan in its native form of a large polymer displays anti-inflammatory and immunosupresive properties. The anti-inflammatory potential of HMWHA has been well documented in osteoarthritis. Since HA is a basic component of normal synovial fluid and the concentration of HA is decreased in joints affected with osteoarthritis, intra-articular injection of HMWHA has been used to treat this condition. Therapeutic effects of such supplementation have been well documented in a number of clinical studies. Several authors investigated the influence of HMWHA on the expression of proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines by synoviocytes. High molecular weight HA was able to inhibit IL-1β expression in synoviocytes in a rabbit model of osteoarthritis.50 Also the IL-1 dependent expression of MMP-1 and MMP-3 was reduced in human synoviocytes by HMWHA treatment. In a large study, Wang and coauthors51 analyzed the influence of HMWHA on gene expression of various inflammatory cytokines by human fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLS) in patients with early-stage of osteoarthritis. They reported the downregulation of IL-8 and iNOS gene expression in unstimulated FLS and aggrecanase-2, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) gene expression in IL-1-stimulated FLS. Blocking the CD44 receptor with anti-CD44 antibody inhibited the down-regulatory effects of HMWHA on gene expression.49 This may suggest the important role of CD44 signaling pathway in the regulation of inflammation by HMWHA. Campo et al52 studied the involvement of TLR receptors in this process. They have reported that HMWHA was able to significantly diminish TLR4, TLR2, MyD88 and NF-kB expression and protein synthesis in synoviocytes in murine model of osteoarthritis. The have also observed reduced mRNA expression and protein production for TNFα, IL-1β, IL-17, MMP-13 and inducible nitrous oxide synthase gene in arthritic mice treated with HMWHA.52 Interestingly, all of the effects mentioned above were present only when HMWHA was administered in an early inflammatory phase of osteoarthritis. This may suggest that along with disease progression, signaling pathways apart from the TLR-dependent ones could be involved in the chronic inflammation state. The exact mechanism in which HMWHA interacts with TLR receptors, leading to inhibition of inflammatory cascade is not known. Campo et al52 have proposed that HA polymers of high molecular mass may mask TLR2 and TLR4 via its polymerized structure and subsequently prevent the stimulation of these receptors.
Antioxidant properties of hyaluronic acid. Oxidative stress is caused by the imbalance between the amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant capacity. When present in excess, ROS has noxious effects on cellular proteins, lipids, and DNA. It is postulated that especially high molecular weight forms of HA can protect from the effects of ROS.
Different antioxidant effects of HMWHA include the decrease in ultraviolet B-induced apoptosis and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid-induced oxidative damage of DNA.15,53 Moreover, HMWHA diminishes apoptosis and oxidative stress triggered with benzalkonium chloride and sodium lauryl sulfate detergents, which are widely used in ophthalmic preparations. It is suggested that HMWHA should be proposed to patients treated with ocular medications with the ingredients aforementioned to reduce the risk of ocular surface impairment.54,55 What is more, it has been demonstrated that treatment with eye drops containing HA reduces oxidative stress in the conjunctiva of patients with dry eye disease.56 Despite numerous studies, the HMWHA mechanisms of oxidative stress reduction are still not completely understood. High molecular weight HA possesses hydroxyl functional groups, which can presumably absorb ROS. Furthermore, HMWHA interacts with the CD44 receptor. It is suggested that due to this interaction, HMWHA may activate pathways involved in the regulation of cellular redox status and intracellular ROS generation.57 Moreover, HMWHA forms a cytoprotective coat on a cell membrane and, as a result, protects the cell from apoptosis. The antioxidant function of HMWHA contributes to the attenuation of DNA damage in human leukocytes during oxidative burst. It is postulated that HA binds to the CD44 receptor on the surface of monocytes and granulocytes and is endocytosed. Subsequently, HA neutralizes intracellular ROS and attenuates the DNA damage. Polyanionic HA molecules chelate Fe2+ and Cu2+ ions, which are required in Fenton’s reaction; in the absence of these ions, hydroxyl radical, which is highly reactive with DNA, cannot be generated. Furthermore, HA may also neutralize ROS outside the leukocytes and protect neighboring cells.58
Using an intra-articular injection of HA in the therapy of osteoarthritis is not a novel idea. Hyaluronic acid determines elastic properties and viscosity of synovial fluid. Recently, antioxidant properties of HA have also been taken into consideration in various pathologies, including osteoarthritis.59 According to Yu et al,60 HA intra-articular injection reduces ROS levels in synovial fluid of patients suffering from osteoarthritis. In addition, HA suppresses hydrogen peroxide-induced cell death in human chondrocytes through an intracellular signaling pathway. The proteomic analysis of human osteoarthritis chondrocytes cultured in stress conditions have revealed the up-regulated expression of proteins involved in stress response and apoptotic pathways: transaldolase, annexin A1, and elongation factor 2. This effect was suppressed by adding HA to the culture medium.60
As previously mentioned, the majority of HA biological actions are strongly associated with its molecular size. Therefore, when it comes to its antioxidative potential, the integrity of the polymeric structure of HA should always be considered. Most studies focus on the underlying antioxidant properties of HMWHA or just HA.54-57 However, Ke and colleagues61 demonstrated strong antioxidant functions of LMWHA, which has shown protective effects against ROS both in vitro and in vivo, and inhibits lipid peroxidation and scavenges free radicals. Moreover, LMWHA raises total antioxidant capacity in immunosuppressed mice.62 The mechanisms of the LMWHA antioxidant effect remain unknown and need further study.
The effects of the antioxidant properties of HA are also of interest in different research fields. Najafi et al63 have proposed to add HA to semen extenders used in cryopreservation of animal sperm. Major medical applications include the treatment of dry eye disease and osteoarthritis.56,59
Hyaluronan in angiogenesis. Angiogenesis is an essential part of the proliferation phase of the wound healing process. During this phase, endothelial cells (EC) migrate from established vessels into surrounding tissues where they proliferate and create new cell-to-cell attachments as well as tubule structures of new capillaries.7 Interactions between EC and ECM components are crucial in the regulation of new vessel formation.
Numerous studies have shown that HA signaling plays an important role in angiogenesis regulation, mainly by influencing EC behavior. Both HMWHA and LMWHA are potent regulators of angiogenesis, however they display opposite effects on EC proliferation and motility. It has been proven that LMWHA stimulates vascular EC proliferation, migration, and tubule formation in vitro, as well as in various in vivo models of angiogenesis.63 At the same time HMWHA displays antiangiogenic properties by inhibiting EC proliferation, motility, and sprout formation.63
The exact molecular mechanisms determining the proangiogenic or antiangiogenic effects of different HA forms have not been fully elucidated. CD44 as well as RHAMM, 2 main receptors for HA, are present on the surface of the endothelial cells. In vitro experiments demonstrated both anti-RHAMM and anti-CD44 antibodies blocked the EC ability to form tubule-like structures in matrigel.64 Blocking the CD44 signaling by anti-CD44 antibody inhibited EC proliferation in vitro.65 Cao and coauthors66 have reported angiogenesis was significantly affected in CD44 knockout mice. The earliest studies concentrated on the HA-mediated mitogenesis via the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway activation. It has been shown that CD44 and RHAMM stimulated by HA oligomers create a complex with ERK 1/2, that leads to constant ERK 1/2 activation and increases cell motility of invasive breast cancer cell lines.67 Similar ERK 1/2 pathway activation by LMWHA has also been reported in other tumor cell lines, but also in various types of ECs, such as human umbilical vein ECs (HUVECs), human micro vessels endothelial cells, or human pulmonary artery ECs.68
Interestingly, recent reports suggest that the promotion of EC proliferation caused by LMWHA may also be associated with expression of other signaling molecules, such as ezrin. This protein, also known as cytovillin or villin-2 belongs to the ERM protein family,which also includes moesin, radixin, and merlin. Ezrin is a linkage protein between the plasma membrane and actin skeleton, thus it plays a key role in cell surface adhesion and migration. Ezrin can interact with cellular C-terminus of CD44 receptor. Studies have shown that ezrin promotes cell adhesion and migration, whereas merlin inhibits cell proliferation. Mo and coauthors68 have shown that LMWHA promoted the proliferation of HUVECs. At the same time, expression of ezrin mRNA and protein was significantly increased in HUVECs pretreated with LMWHA. In contrast, no difference in ezrin and merlin expressions have been observed in HUVECs incubated with HMWHA.69
The proangiogenic effects of LMWHA and antiangiogenic properties of HMWHA have been reported in numerous studies. Surprisingly, in several types of tumor xenografts, injection of hyaluronan oligomers inhibited rather than stimulated tumor growth. This may suggest a context-dependent response to different forms of HA and a possible role of the microenvironment in this process. Fuchs et al70 have investigated the influence of HMWHA and LMWHA on chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 12/chemokine receptor type 4 (CXCR4) signaling. Chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 12 (CXCL12) can stimulate angiogenesis by activating CXCR4 present on the EC surface.70 In wound closure assays, adding the CXCL12 to the culture medium significantly increased cell migration and induced faster wound closure. This effect was statistically augmented when cells were preincubated with HMWHA. In vitro studies have shown that CXCR4 activation by CXCL12 was significantly increased in HUVECs pretreated with HMWHA, whereas preincubation with LMWHA blocked CXCL12 signaling in these cells.
A new, interesting way of CD44 signaling regulation has been reported by Yang and coauthors.71 Using several renal and breast cancer cell lines, the researchers demonstrated that HMWHA was able to stimulate clustering of CD44 into large conglomerates, whereas LMWHA disrupted these structures.72 It is postulated that clusters may influence CD44 signaling by stabilizing complexes; this receptor forms with various signaling molecules. Nevertheless, the possible impact of CD44 clustering on its biological function requires further investigation.